In reality, however, all these philosophical speculations are foreign to Islam itself. They have been indulged in simply because thoughtful Muslims realized that the conception of a barren and absolute unit (وحدة) did not in any way explain the creation of the world, but seemed rather to negative the idea of any action on the part of the deity, lest it should abolish His transcendency (تنزيه). Being unwilling to learn from the word of God, they turned rather to the guidance of heathen philosophers, who had never themselves attained to the true knowledge of God. Two examples will show the resemblance which exists between the Muslim speculations above quoted and those of the Greeks. Thus Aristotle says: 'The ¹ highest philosophy or theology deals with the Being that is eternal, immutable, transcendent. It is plain that there must be some one and eternal Being which is the originator of all movement, something which, while itself changeless, is the source of all change, an eternal and essential energy. On such a first principle heaven and all nature depend . . . . Since God contains all good and is independent, He will be occupied in contemplation; for this is the highest mode of life; and since there can be nothing better than Himself, He will contemplate Himself.' A later philosopher, who wrote in Greek, though born in

Syria, Numenius (ابن الهلال) by name, says more fully: 'The ¹ Being is fixed and eternal, ever the same in itself, hath never perished or increased or decreased, is susceptible of no accidents or movements or locality . . . . That primary or highest God, being in Himself, is altogether simple (بسيط), conversing altogether with Himself, nowise to be divided. But the God who is the second and third is one. Moving about, however, in matter which is dual, he unites it and yet is divided by it, seeing that it is fluxional and has a certain appetitive character. Therefore, not being in direct communication with the purely noetic—for so He would be wholly occupied with Himself—by looking upon matter He becomes occupied with that, and as it were unobservant of Himself. And He touches and deals with that which is sensible (محسوس), and draws it up into His own proper character, stretching himself out to the material (هَيُولّي ـ مادّيّ). The primary God must be free from all works, and a king. But the Demiurgus (الصّانِع) must exercise government, going through the heavens. Through Him comes this our condition, through Him reason being sent down, in transit to hold communion